Madiha Shafique Dar, Sardar Bahadur Khan
Women University, Quetta. Email: madiha.dar2@gmail.com
Kamal Badar, Assistant Professor,
University of Balochistan, Quetta. Email: kamal.badar@um.uob.edu.pk
Abstract. Multiple networks are overlooked in previous
research studies and not much attention is given to the occurrences of such
relational ties. By imprinting the concept of social ledger, the paper suggests
that multiple networks can exist in combination of both positive and negative
ties i.e. potential benefits and liabilities can be derived within a social
relation. The study explores to identify how multiple friendship-hindrance
network centrality (indgree and outdegree) affect an employee’s job
satisfaction level. A sociometric and traditional questionnaire is used to
collect data from 131 employees at the Quetta head office of a premier
telecommunication company. Data is analyzed using UCINET VI and SPSS software.
The finding indicates that indegree centrality of friendship-hindrance network
is negatively associated with job satisfaction. The consequence of these ties
is due to the interplay of social and instrumental relation which commonly
operates in today working environment. Therefore, the study proposed that
negative repercussions should be handled in a productive and optimal manner so
that the impediments may not impel the positives of a relationship.
Key words: Job Satisfaction, Multiple Networks, Multiple Friendship-Hindrance Network,
Network Degree Centrality, Job
Descriptive Index (JDI).
Introduction
Social
network is the tool that comprehends the interrelationship between individuals
and helps to gauge the propensity of how employees can engage in different
relationship ties. Most of the research studies focused attention on uniplex
ties i.e. single ties and a few initiated the concept of multiple network ties.
Multiple or Multiplex ties is a measure of relations that exist between pair of
individuals; such individuals are thought to be linked by multiple social
relational ties (Hood, Cruz, & Bachrach,
2016). This is an emerging concept of social network and less number of
researches is conducted to explore the underline structure of multiplex ties (Bliemel, McCarthy, and Maine, 2014). According
to Robins and Pattison (2006) such ties are complex yet unique in its existence.
These ties are typically defined at dyadic level with occurrence of two or more
different types of relations (Methot, Lepine,
Podsakoff, & Christian, 2015; Hood, Cruz, & Bachrach, 2016). The study elucidates these ties as
interactions of exchange within and across relationships and defined as, “the
extent to which two actors are linked together by more than one relationship”
(Brass, 1995). Such types of ties are thought to simultaneously affect network
dynamics and its outcomes (Shipilov, 2012). Due to its overlapping nature and multilevel
perspective the study take reflect on these relational associations with one of
the most vital variable of workplace, job satisfaction. Such research studies
are rare and often ignored due to its complex prorogation and interdependence.
Additionally, the individuals connected by diversified multiplex ties carry
detailed knowledge and are intimately stronger than uniplex ties (Guenther, Guenther, Bell, & Robins, 2016).
However, this study takes a step forward to explore multiple relational ties by
confining positive and negative ties within the same network relationship. It
is an attempt to fill the gap in the literature by examining the
association of these complex ties with job satisfaction and also measuring its
impact.
The theory of social capital
and social ledger approach are applied as the conceptual grounding for the
general prediction of the study as it explains why multiple social
relationships influence job satisfaction. The social capital theory outlines
that in order to acquire benefits employees exchange resources through mutual
interactions. Hence, it can be appropriate to articulate social relations as a
type of social resources. Thus, exemplify social network “as the sum of actual
and potential resources embedded within, available through, and derived from
the network of relationships possessed by an individual or social unit (Methot,
2010).
Moreover, Moreover, the
dominant approach of social ledger comprising of both negative and positive
social ties accrued from harmful and affectionate feelings or liabilities is
also taken into account. According to Labianca and Brass (2006) the
relationships should be examined under the intervening process of social assets
and liabilities. As the financial ledger is incomplete without assets,
liabilities and its returns, similarly social ledger outcomes are solely based
on positivity and negativity that prevails in the network. Alike financial
ledger this approach proposes that positive and negative ties that may serves
to offset the effects of each other and influences the associated outcome. The
study adopts this approach to further explain the effect of these positive and
negative multiple ties on job satisfaction. Although positive and negative ties
are diversely differentiated and there are many forms of such ties. The study
considered two of the basic forms of such ties as one multiple tie i.e.
friendship ties also named as expressive ties and hindrance ties that creates
impediments within the organizational working setup (Robins & Pattison,
2006, Rafaeli, Cranford, Green, Shrout, & Bolger, 2008; Marineau, Labianca
& Kane, 2016). Hence, creating a new multiplex network variable by
amalgamation of two single stranded ties.
Literature Review
Literature revealed that most
of social network research has exclusively focused on the social capital
benefits which are associated with positive social ties and largely ignored
negative ties. Thus, research studies demonstrate much on uniplex
(single-stranded) social relational ties rather than multi-strandedness of
social network ties. However, scholars emphasized to expand the research on
multiplex ties and a few have worked on the same line. The approach of social
ledger proposed by Labianca and Brass (2006) views social interactions through
two offsetting paths: positive and negative. In other words, it is the
accumulation and depletion of resources i.e. it views not only social capital
but also social liabilities. It entitled recurring of social ties accompanied
by positive or negative affect and an intention to help or harm the other. Its
outcomes are solely based on positivity and negativity that prevails in the network.
However, this concept also examines the positivity and negativity of ties in
separate strands ignoring the multi-relational nature of ties.
Moreover, previous studies
identified the uniplex relationship of social network (positive/negative) ties
on job satisfaction (Baldwin, Bedell, & Johnson, 1997; Venkataramani,
Labianca & Grosser , 2013) while a few studies discuss about multiplex
relationships; how these relations effect in understanding individual attitude
and behavior ( Robins & Pattison, 2006; Methot, 2010). To the best of
knowledge, no study conducted a research on multiplexity and job satisfaction
therefore; this study attempt to fill the research gap that existed in the
literature.
In accord to literature, job
satisfaction considered losing its attention (Ahmadi, Shariati & Faraji,
2012; Asselt-Goverts, Embregts, & Hendriks, 2015) and this study is an
attempt to revive the importance of the concept. Accordingly, job satisfaction
is influenced by a number of factors (Locke, 1969). Smith, Kendall and Hulin
(1969) classified these factors as pay, nature of work, promotion, supervisor
and relations with coworkers. The integration of supervisor and coworker
relations are the dynamic interactions that alter the level of job
satisfaction. Studies revealed that social relations within an organization
influence attitude, psychological behavior and personality of an employee
(Locke, 1969; Spector, 1997) which intensely affects the organizational
outcomes (Van Strombroek-Burger, Sluis, & Montfort, 2011). Therefore, the
study investigates the relational characteristics of multiplex social networks
of an employee within professional arena.
Multiplex or multiplexity was
originated as a new word in the field of social sciences, even though it had
been extensively studied in natural sciences and computer sciences (Wasserman
& Faust, 1994; Scott, 2000). The word has complex and complicated
background, yet to be studied in the field of social sciences especially with
respect to organizational behavior and attitudes (Robins & Pattison, 2006).
Few researchers contributed their work on multiplexity (Galaskiewicz &
Wasserman, 1993; Robbins & Pattison, 2006; Methot, 2010; LePine, Methot,
Crawford & Buckman, 2012; Methot, 2015; Shah, Parker, & Waldstrom,
2016), the most recent studies are of Methot (2010, 2015). Her work is related
to organizational aspects (job performance, team work, team effectiveness) and
multiple relational ties (instrumental networks, friendship networks, hindrance
networks, adversarial networks) prevailing in organizational setting. Ferriani,
Fontiand and Corrado (2012) also contributed his work on Multiplexity with
relation to social and economic network ties. Bliemel, McCarthy and Maine
(2014, 2016) contributed their works in entrepreneurial networks and
multiplexity. Hood, Cruz and Bachrach (2016) focus on friendship and conflict
ties and studied the relationship between these multiplex ties and team
performance. Shiplov (2012) put forward the concept of strategic multiplexity
that needs to be explored by the researchers. Lorenzen and Andersen (2012)
studied effects of multiplex relations on the performance of Bollywood actors.
Bullis and Bach (1991) studied communication networks and multiplexity as
predictors of organizational identification. Conversely, literature verified no
study to be conducted in regard to multiplexity and job satisfaction
(Verbrugge, 1979; Bullis & Bach, 1991; Galaskiewicz & Wasserman, 1993;
Robins & Pattison, 2006; Methot, 2010; Ferriani,
Fonti, &Corrado, 2012; LePine, Methot, Crawford, & Buckman, 2012; Lorenzen&
Andersen, 2012; Shiplov, 2012; Venkataramani, Labianca, & Grosser, 2013;
Methot, Lepine, Podsakoff, &
Christian, 2015; Hood, Cruz, & Bachrach, 2016). Thus, this study
investigates the job satisfaction of an employee based on benefits and
detriments of positive and negative interactions. In order to provide a
complete and accurate picture of social reality the study exclusively examines
multiplex network ties.
Although multiple types of
ties coexist within organization, two broad subsets of such positive ties have
proven to be the dominant ones in predicting many organizational outcomes
(Brass, 1995; Ibarra & Andrews, 1993): instrumental and expressive or
friendship ties (Venkataramani, Zhou, Wang, Liao, & Shi, 2016).
Additionally, negative ties are identified as avoidance, hindrance,
adversarial, conflict etc (Labianca, 2014). Therefore, based on past studies
two of the variables; one from positive and other from negative side (i.e.
friendship –hindrance network ties) are added to the framework of the study.
Dependent Variable
Job Satisfaction
The concept of job satisfaction come into sight
as the study of attitudes ascended (Wright, 2006). It has been the focal issue
in organizational research for decades (Flap &Volker, 2001). Many studies
investigate about the manifestation of job satisfaction yet there exist a
disagreement between the researchers about the definition of job satisfaction
but most of the literature appreciated and referred to the definition of Locke
(1979). He defined job satisfaction as
the extent to which employees have “a pleasurable or positive emotional state
resulting of one`s job or job experiences. He considered job satisfaction as
emotional and affective relations of employees with their job. The studies
further, considered the five specific dimensions of job satisfaction (job security, pay and other compensation, peer and
co-workers, supervision) that are based
on employees affective reactions
(Hackman & Oldham, 1975). According to Scarpello and Campbell (1983) this
evaluation of job satisfaction is most preferable as it considered the most
inclusive measures than the summation of multiple dimensional measures.
Independent Variable
The interaction of individuals in organizations
may emerge into multiple types of networks. Multiplex networks deals with
multiple relations among employees. It may also exist between two employees as
stated “the compound relations within and between two types of ties” (Hanneman &
Riddle, 2005) called as multiplex. According to the theory of social capital
resources may accumulate or deplete creating two offsetting paths for the
employee. Similarly, considering the social ledger theory, the relationship not
only provides social capital but also social liabilities. In accord with the
theories this study proposed multiple network ties that accumulate positive and
negative resources i.e. when employees inherit a relation that accumulates resources it elicit positive
association however, when employee engage in negative relation this detract
from his valuable resources like time and attention thus creating a negative
association.
Multiplex network is more complex phenomena as
it is evident from research that such ties are difficult to maintain within a
work context (Robins and Pattison, 2006; Methot, 2010; Methot, Lepine, Podsakoff & Christian, 2015).It necessitates time and effort to preserve
multiple relations but if proper attention is not given to such relations
despite being strong they create hindrances and conflicts that become hard to
resolve.
In terms of this study, two uniplex ties -
positively and negatively valanced (i.e. friendship and hindrance network ties)
are combined to formulate multiplex relation. Coleman (1988) articulated
friendship ties as a “source of social support, provide a sense of identity and
personal belonging and serve to transmit normative expectations”. According to
Ibarra (1992) “friendship relations are important for getting things in
organization”. Conversely, Sparrowe, Liden, Wayne, and Kraimer (2001) stated hindrance network as “the relationship
with coworkers who thwart task behaviors”
i.e. the network ties expressed as the relationship with coworkers who
make work difficult by withholding valuable information, resources and
opportunities. This network may raise the feeling of threat, annoyance,
emotional distress, and aggression in employees (Sparrowe et al., 2001;
Umphress et al., 2003).
Further,
the multiple friendship- hindrance networks are calculated through centrality
measure. It focuses on identifying the most important and central
actors within the network. The standard network centrality can be divided
into three main measures: degree, betweenness and closeness (Freeman, 1979; Hanneman & Riddle, 2005). The degree centrality is based on the number
of direct ties and actor has with other actors. Freeman (1979) defined degree centrality as
“the number of ties incident upon a node or the degree of paths of length one
that emanate from a node.” In general, it takes into account the number of
direct ties that an employee holds. The in-degree centrality of a network is
defined as the “number of directional links to the actor from other actors (incoming
links)” whereas out-degree centrality is defined as the “number of directional
links from the actors to other actors (outgoing links)” (Brass, 1995).
Based on
past literature and previous theories, it is posited that multiple relations
involve flow of information, emotional support, friendship, antagonism,
animosity, impediments, strategic alliance and much more complex variables that
shape a dynamic and challenging social environment. Hence, the study needs to
investigate the impact of these variables and upon reviewing literature a
hypothesized model is articulated that illustrates the relational ties in
association with the dependent variable i.e. job satisfaction.
Friendship-Hindrance Degree Centrality Network Friendship-Hindrance In-degree Centrality Network Friendship-Hindrance
In-degree Centrality Network Job Satisfaction Friendship-Hindrance Degree Centrality Network Friendship-Hindrance Out-Degree Centrality Friendship-Hindrance
Out-Degree Centrality Job Satisfaction H1 (-) H2 (-)
Figure1: Hypothesized model of the study
In-degree friendship- hindrance multiple
networks connote many people see him as a friend but in reality creating
hindrance in their work. One act to be a friend but behaves like an enemy
creating hindrance for other employee will surely not hold a true relation. An
act like this won`t be acceptable. Ironically, they are professionals that lack
humanity. The reasons for such act may be professional jealousy, personal
selfish desires or any other causes. The employee with such intensions will
never be satisfied and won`t ever gain true relations. Mostly, he will find
himself trapped in anxiety, frustration and jealousy. His motives to create
trouble and hindrance for his friend will always poke him internally for being
disloyal. Therefore, hypothesized that targeting employees purposefully for
harming will not be one-way traffic rather it will reciprocate with same
intensity creating tension and dissatisfaction among employees.
H1a: Friendship-Hindrance
Multiplex Network in-degree centrality is negatively associated with Job satisfaction.
As discussed earlier, friends in an
organizational setting are stated as “emotional support resource providers” (LePine, Methot, Crawford & Buckman, 2012). However it depends on the feelings of an
individual rather he is a true friend or friend for benefits or a leg puller.
Such people behave like sugar coated pills. On front they appreciate, support
and favor you. On back they are the ones cutting the roots and making one down.
Therefore, it is hypothesized as ties acting like friends but creating
hindrances may cause annoyance, frustration and dissatisfaction.
H1b: Friendship-Hindrance
Multiplex network out-degree centrality is negatively associated with Job
satisfaction.
Methodology
Data collected from a Quetta head office of a premier
telecommunication company. The organizational size was
taken as network boundary and it allowed conducting an analysis of a whole
organizational network by using a whole network approach. It examines set of
interrelated employees that are bounded for analytical purposes. The data is
collected by asking each respondent distinct question about their relationship
with his coworkers. 230 employees were invited to participate, out of which 131
respondent returned the questionnaire yielding a response rate of 61.21%.
Dependent Variable
To measure the level of Job
satisfaction, Job Diagnostic Survey Questionnaire (JDS) is used as the
instrument designed to be completed by employees (Schult, 2013). It measures
the overall degree to which the employee is satisfied and happy with the job as
well a number of short scales (job security, pay and other compensation, peer
and co-workers, supervision) which provide separate measures of satisfaction
(Hackman & Oldham, 1974).
The data is also checked for
ambiguous and missing values. Measurement of reliability is calculated as it is
useful in determining the degree to which respondents are consistence.
Thus, according to reliability
statistics of 14 items, the computed Cronbach alpha coefficient is 0.866
indicating high internal consistency and all the items measured same construct
i.e. job satisfaction. Therefore, the dependent variable is transformed into
composite variable by using average weighted score.
Independent Variable
The instrument measured
network survey is a questionnaire. Based on the write-in method, participants
in the organization were asked to identify others in the organization with whom
there exists any form of relational ties. To assess the multiple friendship-hindrance
network, respondents specifies the names of employees that are given value of 0
and 1. The zero indicates no relationship whereas 1 indicates that there exists
a relationship. The raw data collected is used to compose independent networks
in MS Excel Sheets which are further specified into square matrices (Hanneman &
Riddle, 2005). Later, the matrices are entered into the social network analysis
software package UCINET VI (Borgatti, 2002; Borgatti, Everett & Freeman
2002) to run multiplex in-degree and out-degree centrality was calculated. The multiple coder operation
deliberately specifies the existence of multiple relationships in a form of
qualitative typology (Hanneman & Riddle, 2005) that is used to calculate
the in and out degree centrality of each type of network.
It is evident through research (Hulbert, 1991)
age, gender, job tenure; race and education affect job satisfaction (Kalleberg &
Lascocco, 1983; Miller, 1980; Mottaz, 1987; Wright & Hamilton, 1979).
Therefore, variables stated above are treated as control variables.
According to Brass (1985) in the organization
females typically are not well- integrated as males therefore, we controlled
this variable. Tenure is the number of years an employee has been working in
the organization. It is taken as a control variable, because it is believed
that employees with greater tenure would have a more central network position
and job satisfaction due to the increased time they spent working in the
organization. Race is also taken as a
control variable because minorities are often marginalized in social networks
(Zagenczky & Murrell, 2009). The control
variables were coded, as age was measured in years. Gender was coded 1for male
and 0for female. Respondent tenure was coded in years (0 – 25) and their
education were coded according the standards of qualifications. Also race was
controlled and coded as 0 for Balochi, 1 for Pathans, 2 for Punjabi and 3 for Sindhi.
Results
The dependent variable was
examined to assure normality assumptions. The
descriptive statistics of control variables (age, gender, educational
background, racial background and job tenure) are summarized in table 1. The
descriptive statistics describes the total sample composed of 106 male (80.8
percent) and 25 female (19.2 percent) respondents. The descriptive statistics
provide information from 131 respondents, the range of ages is 30 to 50, with a
mean of 38.7 and standard deviation of 7.27. The educational background mean of
respondents is 3.65 and standard deviation shown as 4.00. Similarly, the
respondent`s racial background calculated mean is 2.81 (SD=1.28). The average
job tenure is 3.48 with a standard deviation of 1.06.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Correlation
Matrix of Variables (N=131)
|
Variables |
Mn |
Std.
Dev. |
1 |
2 |
3 |
4 |
5 |
6 |
7 |
|
Age |
38.7 |
7.27 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Educational Background |
3.65 |
4.00 |
.13** |
-.05 |
|
|
|
|
|
|
Racial Background |
2.81 |
1.28 |
.15** |
.05 |
.09 |
|
|
|
|
|
Job Tenure |
3.48 |
1.06 |
.44** |
-.04 |
.15** |
.09 |
|
|
|
|
Job Satisfaction |
5.1 |
.835 |
.16** |
-.13** |
-.05 |
.16** |
.08 |
|
|
|
Multiple Friendship-Hindrance In-degree Network |
4.73 |
4.60 |
.05 |
-.11* |
.02 |
.08 |
.13** |
.12* |
|
|
Multiple Friendship-Hindrance Out-degree Network |
3.97 |
2.70 |
.10* |
.03 |
.16** |
.06 |
.08 |
.01 |
.09 |
** Correlation
is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed)
*
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed)
The correlations analysis results indicates
that there exist an association between job satisfaction and in-degree friendship- hindrance multiple network (r=
0.132, p<0.05) where as there is no correlation found between out-degree friendship- hindrance multiple
networks and job satisfaction (r= -0.083, p >0.05).
The multiple regression analysis was run to predict the influence of friendship- hindrance multiple network
in-degree and out-degree centrality
on job satisfaction. The two hypotheses were tested simultaneously. Table 2
shows the results of the analysis.
Table 2: Summary
of Multiple Regression Analysis of Variables Predicting Job Satisfaction
(N=131)
|
Variables |
β coefficient |
Hypothesis Test |
|
|
test- statistics |
p- sig. |
||
|
Dependent Variable |
|
|
|
|
Job Satisfaction |
|
|
|
|
(Intercept) |
5.52 |
10.94 |
.000 |
|
Control Variables |
|
||
|
Age |
.01 |
2.01 |
.05 |
|
Gender |
-1.37 |
-2.89 |
.00 |
|
Educational Background |
-.02 |
-1.78 |
.08 |
|
Racial Background |
.12 |
3.72 |
.00 |
|
Job Tenure |
.02 |
.46 |
.65 |
|
Independent Variables |
|
||
|
Multiple Friendship-Hindrance In-degree Network |
-.02 |
- 2.75 |
.01 |
|
Multiple Friendship-Hindrance Out-degree Network |
-.00 |
-.11 |
.92 |
The result indicates that in-degree friendship- hindrance multiple
networks negatively impacts job satisfaction (β=
0.006, p <0.05). Thus, it can be concluded that hypothesis H1 is
accepted, signifying that it is
difficult to work with a friend who may create hindrance. An employee involved
in the friendship of a corrupt friend may experience strain and
dissatisfaction.
Discussion
The most prominent contribution of this research is that
it clarified how multiple relational ties are distinct and unique from the
relations that are uniplex in nature. The theory proposed that multiplex ties
reflect stronger, intimating and affectionate interpersonal relation but when
emerge in with negative approaches it yields pessimism and antagonism behavior.
These types of relations are unique set of patterns therefore the result of
this study will immensely be helpful and valuable for the researchers and
practitioners, especially those who desire to refine the explicitly approach of
multiplex network ties. The results of the study supported the predicted
hypotheses and showed that multiple relations function distinctively with job
satisfaction.
In regard to previous research, this study successfully
combined the theoretical, conceptual and practical aspect of multiplex network.
Unlike, uniplex ties multiplex ties different in significance and
characteristics. Hence, the study found that multiplex network ties
associations and disassociations among individuals or employees may lead to
different outcomes. For instance, if multiplex ties prevails in abundance than
it may lead to organizational failure by collapsing the hierarchical structure.
As the results elicited that it is difficult to work with
a friend who may create hindrance. The voluntary nature of friendship (Fehr,
1996) and negative feelings creates impediments to accomplish the work (Grosser, Lopez-Kidwell, & Labianca, 2010). Similarly, interaction and communication is
important to maintain friendship (Raile, Kim, Choi, Serota, Park, & Lee, 2008)
but that should be strong and true; not prevailing as a nuisance. If an
employee involved in the friendship of a corrupt friend, he may experience
strain and dissatisfaction.
Conclusion
and recommendations
It was
predicted that job satisfaction is negatively associated with
friendship-hindrance network as employees intend they are treated with
friendliness and liveliness but in fact their friends are the ones creating
difficulties and hindrance for them in accomplishment of their work. The
findings found supportive results for hypothesis H1,
elucidating that the employees reporting greater number of
friends in work place perceived that they have friends who can improve their
mood and be helpful at workplace but instead such friends are likely to be a
barrier and hindrance. As they are not true friends instead they came out as
professional players who are fiends only for benefit. Although, no hindrance is
actually expected from close friends especially at work as it may damage the
satisfaction at professional and personal level. But a bereavement of close
relations creates devastating effect on employee emotions causing severe shock,
distress and grief. Thus, the study allows the researchers and managers to visualize and
understand the myriad of multiple relationships that can either increase or
decrease the level of job satisfaction of an employee
and suggest improving the relations and resolving conflicts within
organization. It is recommended to segregate such ties that create pessimism.
It is better to define the roles of employees so as to lessen the distraction
that hindered the work. The success
and failure often depends on the internal
organizational structure, therefore, it is recommended to organizations to build enduring mutual relationships
which help leverage resources and sustain success.
Although,
maintaining such ties would be difficult as friends to mingle but if one desire
to enhance its professional abilities he has to manage such ties but limiting
the resources, time and energy. It is better for an employee to pay more
attention towards his/her work and limited the number of multiple ties in a
workplace as instead of increasing resources the benefits and resources are
depleting (Methot, 2010).
To improve the generalizability of the study
one can study the model in other workplace settings. The study focuses only on one
centrality measure i.e. closeness. Future research can investigate the concept
by applying other measures of centrality, transitivity, reciprocity, tie strength, density etc and may also examine the influence by
studying with other organizational factors. The study has been limited to the
individual relationship but the ties beyond
the dyad as well as triad might also be examined to
yield better results.
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